Transformation of China’s diplomacy under the Westphalian order: geopolitical tensions and Sino-European relations (XVIIIth-XIXth centuries)

Abstract

This article explores the diplomatic relations between China and Britain, focusing on the failed attempt to impose the Westphalian model upon Qing China. This study seeks to provide a distinct approach to the examination of power dynamics and international relations during the Qing dynasty based on the tributary system. This is achieved through a qualitative analysis of texts and manuscripts by Jesuits, who served as privileged witnesses at the imperial court. In this manner, the proposal of a connected history is applied to analyse, through various texts by Christian missionaries, the development, complexities, and cultural rituals upon which the international relations of imperial China were founded. The principal novelty of this study lies in offering a re-evaluation through qualitative analysis, pertaining to cultural and social aspects surrounding the exercise of power and the articulation of China's international relations. It re-examines the British diplomatic mission led by Lord Macartney.